Davis Managing diversity in transnational project teams. (2001). . The assumed commonality in attributes and behaviors may also be evident in axiological assumptions. Can leadership enhance school effectiveness? How principals manage ethnocultural diversity: Learnings from three countries. However, these may be taken-for-granted, and only apparent to those designing and delivering development when a lack of fit is pointed out by specific groups. This paper's focus is school culture as 10. Hallinger (2001, p. 65) suggests that the primary purpose of schooling is the onward transmission of established culture and values between generations. In Elmes Many leaders are constrained to varying degrees by the pressing demands of accountability and competition which in themselves create a dominant cultural context. There is relatively little attention paid to middle leaders such as department heads and teacher leaders (Bush & Jackson, 2002). Hallinger, P. Ribbins, P. Consequently, although there is relatively little empirical data on which to draw, the issue of fit between culture and the conception, development and enactment of leadership has become a key concern. Prasad, P. Dorfman , & Washington, K. Hallinger, P. The capacity of any individual or group to engineer culture is questionable (Adler, 1997; Morgan, 1986). Very many illustrations could be offered of the different expectations and practice of leadership throughout the world. Consequently, a tendency to stereotype or discount alternative cultures must be halted by conscious, persistent effort (Lumby with Coleman, 2007). Jackson, D. British Educational Research Journal, 32(3), 363386. It will therefore involve engagement with the moral choices which lie at the heart of leadership. More helpful is the model of Schein (1990), which, in contrast, has provided a generic and analytical model of culture. School culture is the set of shared values, beliefs and norms that influence the way educators and administrators think, feel and behave in schoolplace. Hofstede, G. Within this, however, there may exist several cultures: Stoll and Fink (1996)25 pupil culture, teacher cultures, a leadership culture, non-teaching staff culture, and parent culture. However, such a perspective ignores the ability of schools to select many of the cultural inputs. Archer (1996, p. 1) contends that the notion of culture remains inordinately vague to the extent that poverty of conceptualization leads to culture being grasped rather than analysed. Hallinger (2001) notes the changing aims of Asian education and specifically the global standards applied to assessing the quality of education in Hong Kong. C+. ), Culture, Leadership, and Organizations: the GLOBE study of 62 Societies (pp. Discernment of the publicly espoused culture, the culture implicit in practice and the desired culture will inevitably comprise a kaleidoscope of differing opinions and wishes reflecting the perspectives of the individuals responsible for the design and delivery of development. The Shopping Mall High School: Winners and Losers in the Educational Marketplace; National Association of Secondary School Principals (U.S.); National Association of Independent Schools. International Studies in Educational Administration, Thomas, D. C. The typology tool was first developed in 1997 as a hands-on, practical method of defining for discussion purposes a school's stage or type of culture. . The first is that culture is neither unitary nor static (Collard & Wang, 2005), and while change may be evolutionary rather than revolutionary, trends and developments in internal and external influences will move the culture forward. His ideas were widely influential. 8-9; Stoll and Fink 1995). At the interface with exogenous and endogenous cultures, preparation and development reflect choices which are more than technical. In Despite the widespread acknowledgement that culture varies considerably and that leadership preparation and development could be adjusted in relation to the culturally embedded ontological, epistemological and axiological differences between cultures, the content, method of delivery and assessment of preparation and development shows relatively little variation throughout the world (Bush & Jackson, 2002). It has 525 students in grades 9-12 with a student-teacher ratio of 13 to 1. International Journal for Leadership in Education, 7(2),127146. Lumby, J. One consequence is that there is currently no precise means of assessing dimensions variously labeled as cultural distance or degree of diversity (Iles & Kaur Hayers, 1997, p. 107) or diversity amount and diversity degree (Thomas, 1999; Taras & Rowney, 2007); that is the differences between the culture of one location of leader development and another, or the extent of cultural differences within a leader development group. (2006). Celebration and humour"we feel good about ourselves" a holistic concept. you are agreeing to our use of cookies. Understanding international differences in culture would provide a basis for planning cultural fit in preparation and development programs. Tuition is $13,400 for the highest grade offered. It may be limiting, ineffective and ethically dubious, particularly in those countries with a history of previous colonization and suppression of indigenous cultures. Metaphorically culture is like the air we breathe; all around us, vital, and yet difficult to discern and to change. , The Place of Culture in Social Theory. London: Penguin. Louque, A. In the education sector, the PLC provides a pathway to a learning organisation: one which comprises 'a group of people who take an active, re ective, collaborative, (2001). Changing the culture becomes merely a question of technical fit, of shaping leadership development to align it to local culture. Beyond the school, though, lies a range of contextual cultures extending from the community within which the school lies to regional, national and international cultural contexts. Journal of School Leadership, Coleman, M. By continuing to use the site , Thirdly, it offers an international perspective by looking at the micro relationship of culture to the multiple identities and cultures of individuals and organizations. (1985). What is the significance of time is the organization most oriented towards the past, the present or the future? we elaborated a typology of school improvement trajectories: we identi ed 4 di erent trajectories of school improvement. Aitken, R. Cultural fluency will be predicated on more than cognitive effort (Lakomski, 2001). No one theory of leadership is implied. Mills, M. The second is that cultural plurality is the norm in many educational systems and within most individual schools and colleges. Identity based and reputational leadership: an American Indian approach to leadership. Leaders navigate cultural choices which are always constrained. It enriches the theory related to school culture and the research findings that have been identified in the Western settings. Stier, J. McCauley 17). The Culture of the School and the Problem of Change. In another region of China, Hong Kong, teacher contact hours are considerably higher and leadership is more firmly placed with the principal. Fullan (2001) has suggested that recognizing the need for, and understanding the processes involved in, cultural change are essential tools of leadership development, for it is in establishing a culture of change in school that successful school development can occur. Gender and race in leadership preparation: a constrained discourse. If leaders believe that a dominant culture is identifiable or achievable, and that it is a single, stable and unifying phenomenon, then changing it becomes a matter of choice, but relatively straightforward and without any moral ramifications. (forthcoming) point up the greater sensitivity within some cultures where responsibility for success is group owned and/ or where maintaining face is a high priority. I am a member of the publication's editorial board and strongly support the publication, Authored by: Where preparation and development engage at all with culture, the current prevalence of content-competencies (Stier, 2003, p. 84) does not begin to equip leaders with the skills needed to relate to exogenous and endogenous cultures. In terms of cultural outputs school leaders need to understand both what the external societies expect from the school and what they wish to achieve themselves this will require an integration of their personal and professional values, their vision of the purpose of schooling, and the visions and values of the key external stakeholders. However, a model which merely identifies cultural elements doesnt take account of the dynamic nature of culture and it is useful therefore to consider culture in the context of a systems perspective on organizations. Cultures consequences: management in Saudi Arabia. It would appear that teachers have one view, government another, and various segments of the community still another. Deal, T. Walker, A. Throughout the world a great deal of effort and money has been expended in the name of educational change. International Journal of Educational Management, 5(3), 45. (1996). & , E. V. Velsor, E. V. (2003). Reading, MA: Addison Wesley. R. J. & These may be through processes of exclusion or processes of inclusion, resulting in a relatively homogeneous or diverse student body, but in either case the outcome will be a pupil profile which reflects a particular set of cultural characteristics. typology of Rosenholtz (1989) differentiates static and dynamic school culture. Watch online from home or on the go. (1996). (Forthcoming). The aim is to encourage leaders to address obliviousness to their own culture and challenge approaches which may inappropriately embed a single culture and/or a culture alien to some participants. One of the best known divisions was by Stoll and Fink (2000), which distinguishes mobile, . We would also suggest that pupils, although seldom asked, would hold . In this line, a study . School culture . The mechanics of diffusion and the appropriateness of the results have been subject to unequal research interest. International Studies in Educational Administration, 29(2) 3037. School leaders work within pressing cultures which sustain themselves by multiple conscious and unconscious mechanisms (Lumby with Coleman, 2007). Much of it has been misdirected and some of it wasteful. What we mean by the term culture is both argued to be generally understood (Lumby, Walker, Bryant, Bush & Bjork, forthcoming) and suggested not to be understood, misunderstood or so variously understood as to be verging on meaningless. Preparing head teachers to respond to these challenges will be a significant challenge, therefore, and this is a focus later in the chapter. Jacky Lumby It takes the view that culture can be unified and that dissent, anomaly, conflicts of interest or ambiguity are viewed. International Journal of Leadership In Education, 4(4),297307. If alternatively, culture is viewed as multiple, unstable, persistently contested, reflecting the differing perspectives and power of individuals and groups, changing the culture of a school is a different kind of endeavor. She challenges whether any classification of humans is tenable in the light of increasing certainty deriving from advances in natural science that whatever taxonomy is adopted, the complexity of human beings, biologically, linguistically and culturally, cannot be placed into easily described categories: We are using cookies to provide statistics that help us give you the best experience of our site. Processual competencies, comprising intrapersonal competencies and cognitive competencies (2003, p.84), are also needed. Leadership and intercultural dynamics. Mller 178190). School Culture. For example, North American and European development assert a cultural commitment to inclusion and equality for all. Hwang, K. K. Education researchers have also assumed such common attributes, for example, integrity (Begley, 2004; Bhindi & Duignan, 1997). Educational Leadership: Ambiguity, Professionals and Managerialism. R. & Adler, N. Does it perceive itself as dominant, submissive, harmonizing or searching out a niche within its operational environment? School Culture Edited by: Jon Prosser Publisher: SAGE Publications Ltd Publication year: 1999 Online pub date: June 19, 2012 Discipline: Education Subject: Social/Philosophical Foundations, School Culture & Climate, Sociology of Education (general) DOI: https:// doi. 330). Educational Management & Administration, Bush, T. (1998). ing the micropolitic and the school culture as key components to study school improvement . (1986). (1996). Murphy , The culture of a school is one of its critical organizational characteristics. Personal or student reference I refer students to this publication for new research articles or for my work, Benefit library's collection Acquisition of this publication will benefit department, faculty and student needs, Affiliation The chapter aims to avoid becoming ensnared in the complexity of culture by confining its discussion to a sample of illustrative examples of both simple and complex conceptualizations. One dimension of fit may relate to ease with receiving positive and negative feedback and from whom. Culture is shaped by five interwoven elements, each of which principals have the power to influence: Fundamental beliefs and assumptions, or the things that people at your school consider to be true. Trond (Eds. Deciding which cultural assumptions to attempt to embed in the design and delivery of development, including the degree to which they will replicate or challenge dominant cultures; Deciding how best to equip leaders with intercultural competence, so that they in their turn can decide which cultural assumptions to attempt to embed in their school leadership, including the degree to which they will replicate or challenge dominant cultures. Redefining the field of European human resource management: a battle between national mindsets and forces of business transition? According to Mortimore (1991), a lot of improvement efforts have failed because research results were not translated adequately into guidelines for educational practice. , & Instead there are history, context, process, interactivity, power relations and change. M. (1996). Skip to page content. Journal of Management Development, 15(5), 421. , Pupils, staff and school leaders have an on-going engagement with external stakeholders, from parents, to neighbors, to employers, to the media, and every one of those interactions conveys a message about the culture of the school and its underpinning values. P., Glatter (Eds. Scheins model provides a greater level of sophistication by focusing on a challenging interrogation of the culture of the school and linking culture more strongly to underpinning values and beliefs. Cultural globalization is the international transfer of values and beliefs, and while strictly it is multi-directional it is typically perceived as dominated by the spread of western, particularly American, values and symbols across the globe. Educators would be extremely concerned to consider fully the implications of assessing school students against standards imported from another nation. Bjork, L. P. , (2001). Its view of the nature of human activity does it believe that people behave in a dominant/proactive mode or a passive/fatalistic mode? London: Paul Chapman. Here we shall consider three of these perspectives which we believe provide diverse insights reflections on the tangible components of culture and a number of models of those components in action; consideration of the organizational scales at which culture is important in educational contexts; and a systems view of culture which enables the areas of potential management influence of culture in schools to be identified. For example, being dynamic and dependable, encouraging and displaying integrity were agreed to be positive leader attributes across all the nations involved. Find Washington Middle School test scores, student-teacher ratio, parent reviews and teacher stats. (2002). C. (Eds. (2006). Teacher cultures have received most . Categorization of groups which might be assumed to hold a culture in common is therefore problematic. The challenge for educational leaders is to recognize and conceptualize each of these cultural realms and understand how it impacts on and provides implications for their own school. Cross-cultural understandings of leadership: themes from Native American interviews. Certainly it would be helpful to undertake an educational equivalent of the GLOBE project (House et al., 2004) and to establish the education leadership attributes and behaviors that are held in common across a large number of nations and those elements that are culturally contingent. Story Washington Middle School located in La Habra, California - CA. C. A challenge to dominant cultures and the evolution of cultures which are seen as fitting will be achieved only by persistent efforts to increase the intercultural fluency of all involved, in part by increasing the evidence base, and in part through detailed translation of such evidence to impact the design and delivery of the development of leaders. Bryant, M. The fourth theme addresses a key concern for both policy and practice which is the connection between culture and leaders preparation and development. Similarly, the selection of teaching staff provides at least an implicit and possibly an explicit mechanism of shaping a key cultural input into the school. In the context of education this is seen through the promotion of policies and practices around the globe that have been initially developed in the west, based often on western approaches to educational management and the key concept of economic rationalism. He created a series of descriptors of the culture of schooling with a particular focus on how key cultural characteristics equate to the absence of a productive learning environment. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Bush, T. Prosser (1998) has shown how culture is expressed at different levels within an organization, ranging from the individual classroom, to teams of teachers, to the whole school. This paper aims to explore how the formation of Palestinian teachers' professional identity was affected by their experiences during the violent conflict known as the Second Intifada (2000-2005) and its impact on the school social culture. Rather, in leadership every person has a role to play (Bryant, 1998, p. 12) undertaking a leadership act as need and personal understanding or skill require. (1971). Stoll and Fink (1996) developed a model in determining the school culture. Ribbins Culture and Agency. School culture, therefore, is most clearly seen in the ways people relate to and work together; the management of the school's structures, systems, and physical environment; and the extent to which there is a learning focus for both pupils and adults, including the nature of that focus (Stoll & Fink, 1998) or simply the distinctive identity of . All leadership development has embedded cultural values. (Eds. & While there is extensive research on the implications of assessment modes on school learners, including the relationship of assessment to variables such as gender and ethnicity, no similar body of research informs how we understand the assessment of leaders. A person in charge is not required. (2004). In In an increasingly complex, diverse and unpredictable world, it is necessary for schools and those working with them . Tomorrow, and tomorrow and tomorrow: a post-postmodern purview. DiPaola, M.F. & This may be due in part to the fact that understanding culture and its connection to leadership in education is a poorly researched field. International Studies in Educational Administration. Educational Administration Quarterly, 39(1), 6894. Rusch, E. Accultured, automatic, emotional responses preclude awareness of internalized culture. , Decisions to encourage acceptance or critique of the dominant culture and its effect lie at the moral heart of supporting the education of leaders. Educational leadership: an Islamic perspective. More research of this kind, exploring fit not only to the dominant culture of the nation/region, but also fit to the multiple cultures within the nation or region would provide a potentially powerful antidote to programs which are currently not culturally inclusive. & (2005). Journal of Educational Administration, 36(1), 828. Paper presented to the The purpose of this book is to re-orient the current agenda in education towards learning. Stoll, L. , The radical modernization of school and education system leadership in the United Arab Emirates: towards indigenized and educative leadership. ), Strategic Human Resource Management (pp. Such simple categorizations provide briefly interesting analytical tools to assist school leaders in gaining an initial understanding of their school culture, but are of limited wider utility. & Professing educational leadership: conceptions of power. Hodgkinson, C. Revisiting the Culture of the School and the Problem of Change. Two distinctive views of this connection can be identified (Collard, 2006). V. (2002). Schein (1985, p.6) considers the basic essence of an organisation's culture to be: Research has shown the principal to be a significant factor in school effectiveness (Hallinger & Heck, 1999). Tippeconic, J. Iles, P. The former has received very little and the latter a good deal more attention (Gronn, 2001; Heck, 1996). Cultural complexity offers only multiple complications in assessing fit, not safe generalized conclusions. & Cincinnati: South Western. In contrast the assessment of educational leaders often assumes that consideration of cultural fit is unnecessary in relation to standards which are uncritically accepted as international. In Women and leadership: The views of women who are . Each of these contexts has a culture that expresses itself conceptually, verbally, behaviorally and visually, and which is a product of the complex interaction of communities, socio-economic contexts and contrasts, ethnic and faith-based values and beliefs, and the history of that community as a whole and of the individuals within it. (1990). M. However, Cardno (2007) argues that the dilemma created by the need to give negative feedback and to save face, for example in appraisal, often emphasized as a cultural context in Chinese societies, is in fact universal. . ), The University Council for Educational Administration: Handbook of Research on the Education of School Leaders, Lumby, J. It is "the way we do things around here" and often defined as 'the basic assumptions, norms and values and cultural artifacts of a school that . While awareness of and reflection on hegemonic theory may be of use, its global dominance in preparation and development seems inappropriate on a number of grounds. (Eds. Hothouse culture exists where the pressure is to high academic achievement, typically in response to government or parental pressure to deliver high quality examination results. M. You can find out more in our Privacy Policy. The first proposes four 'ideal type' school cultures, based on two underlying domains; the second, a more elaborate and dynamic model, proposes two 'ideal type' school cultures, based on five underlying structures. I refer students to this publication for new research articles or for my work, Acquisition of this publication will benefit department, faculty and student needs, I am a member of the publication's editorial board and strongly support the publication. Kennedy, A. The second has a similar perspective but rather than losing the identities of existing cultures in the melting pot sees the retention of plural cultures within education which can enrich and reinforce each other what is sometimes described as the salad bowl approach to cultural change. However, process models may not mesh with some cultures. & San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. ), Managing the Organizational Melting Pot: Dilemmas of Workplace Diversity (pp. The paper reviews the literature on 'what works' in school improvement taken from a number of sourcesfrom effective schools studies, from accounts by headteachers who have turned schools around. Begley, P. Intercultural Education. Boosting pupil's progress development Working together to respond to changing context Know where they are going and having the will and skill to get there Possess norms of improving schools1.MOVING REFERS ON THE FOLLOWING: Walker, A. Tin, L. This may be interpreted in several ways ranging from the operational to the political. Clearly in these two instances, Western derived theories of autonomy, planning and change management are all thrown into question. At the exogenous level, there appears to be widespread cultural homogeneity implicit in leadership development; that is, whether explicitly acknowledged or not, development is underpinned by some degree of belief in leadership as an invariable activity (Walker & Walker, 1998; Bhindi & Duignan, 1997): this despite recognition that even the word leader has very different connotations in different cultures (House, 2004). Mills | Promotions International Journal for Leadership in Education, 4(4), 401414. But what is an ineffective school? Hallinger, P. Nevertheless, school leadership that supports, stimulates, and facilitates teacher learning, has been found to be a key condition for collaborative teacher learning (Stoll & Kools, 2017). Downloaded by [Teldan Inc] at 05:45 14 September 2015 . Such a perspective suggests that the dominant culture, were it to be discerned with any certainty, would be embedded, unexamined and therefore unchallenged, in preparation and development programs. Gupta & Schein, E. H. London: Falmer. Stoll (2000) gave a general definition on the foundations of school's cultures. Hofstede (2003) has argued strongly that there are measurable differences between the cultures of nations. (2007). Panel 3. Nick Foskett, Print publication date: July 2008 & The discourse of diversity: from biology to management. The implication is that if leadership preparation and development is to aspire to cultural fit, a high degree of sophistication is required. ABSTRACT The relevance of the concept of culture to school effectiveness and school improvement is explored. | Privacy policy (2002). 420421). (2007). (2005). A second view, though, is that of leaders as agents of cultural change, as discussed earlier in the chapter. Javidan ), Handbook of Leadership Development (pp. The extent of this range of sub-cultures and counter-cultures and their positive or negative interactions will be a key issue for those in leadership within the school and may cause cultural management issues to be significant or insignificant within the whole management task. New York: Teachers College Press. | Cookies The design of curriculum and delivery is therefore to an extent a cultural guessing game requiring those responsible for preparation and development to hold a high level of cultural fluency themselves and to support the development of cultural fluency in others. , A primary aim of the chapter therefore is to explore how we understand culture in its infinitely variable expressions, and how it relates to the design and implementation of leadership preparation and development programs. Systems theory enables us to conceptualize every school and educational organization as being characterized 1) by a range of inputs, 2) by the processes in operation within the school, and 3) by a set of outputs and in each of these three elements of the system we can identify culture as a key component. Organizational change, leadership and learning: culture as cognitive process. The government of Thailand sought to introduce the western concept of school-based management, but found this problematic in the context of an existing societal culture, typical amongst the staff of Thai schools, in which deference to senior management and leadership made the introduction of collaborative and distributed approaches to leadership very difficult.